Stripped or not ? iOS App with unnamed symbol in LLDB

I am faced with an ambiguity being a novice. I’m trying to reverse an iOS application with LLDB and all the function coming from the app (native) are labeled as unnamed_symbol in the backtrace :

The problem is that several other tools are able to retrieve these native symbols :

nm Application –add-dyldinfo :

Hopper :

Frida-trace with a demangled form :

But MachOView has not these symbols in its Symbol Table or Dynamic Symbol Table but in its sections __TEXT,__objc_methname and __TEXT,__cstring. I really don’t have a clue on what is going on. Is this app really stripped ? If yes, how Hopper and the other softwares are able to make the link between the symbols and the addresses since they aren’t in the symtab.

Thanks for reading.

(Additional newbie question : why are there a lot of symbols coming from external framework in the symtab, aren’t they supposed to be in the dsymtab ? I’m quiet confused.